---
title: "Towards a classification of metaphor use"
author: "Dominik Lukeš"
outline_version: 2
auto_title_slide: false
auto_thanks_slide: false
---

## Towards a classification of metaphor use
{id=pptx-95349d5707bc-001} {title}

Dominik Lukeš

d.lukes@uea.ac.uk

[www.bohemica.com/metaphor](http://www.bohemica.com/metaphor)

## Outline
{id=pptx-95349d5707bc-002}

- Rationale for a classification
- Problems with conceptual system and the conceptual structure of a text
- Outline of a possible classification
- Practical applications and limitations

## Rationale
{id=pptx-95349d5707bc-003}

- Need to compile corpus and interpret data
- What do examples mean for the conceptual system e.g. do uses of ‘vision’ and ‘faith’ in political discourse imply the existence of a POLITICS IS RELIGION metaphor?
- What do examples mean for the conceptual underpinning of particular texts?

## Conceptual vs. Formal
{id=pptx-95349d5707bc-004}

> "Of course, **not everyone's sense of reality is structured in terms of *all* the above metaphors and folk theories. And even if it were, not everyone would put them together in the way outlined above**. Nor does it follow that someone iwth such a sense of reality would act on it, as the speaker supposedly has not. What the analysis of the passage does seem to show is that **American culture contains within it a sufficient stock of fairly common metaphor and folk theories which, when put together in the way outlined above, can actually provide what could be viewed as a 'rationale' for rape.** Furthermore, if these metaphors and folk theories were not readily available to us for use in understanding -- that is, if they were not ours in some sense -- the passage would simply be **incomprehensible** to us." (Lakoff, 1987, p. 415)

## Ways of Classification
{id=pptx-95349d5707bc-005}

- Lakoff & Johnson; Kövecses
- Goatly
- Steen

## Classification Criteria
{id=pptx-95349d5707bc-006}

- Recoverability/Salience
- Cognitive status
- Interpersonal purpose
- Textual use

## Recoverability/Salience
{id=pptx-95349d5707bc-007}

| Salience / Recoverability | **Entrenched** | **Analogical** |
|---|---|---|
| *Recoverable with great effort* | Dead | |
| *Recoverable with some effort* | Lexicalized | Idiomatic |
| *No recovery needed* | Poetic | Novel/Generative |

> “Essentially, the root, **curriculum**, is honored: What is/should be the nature of the **course or journey** on which we take those whom we teach?”

## Cognitive status
{id=pptx-95349d5707bc-008}

- Constitutive
  - Explanative (*Teachers stimulate students’ growth, Teachers provide vital services*)
    - Structural
    - Ontological
    - Orientational
  - Generative (*Teachers must be researchers*)
- Attributive (X is Y: *Teachers are herders, prison wardens, animal trainers, asylum caretakers*)

### Cognitive status
{id=pptx-95349d5707bc-009} {notitle}

> the mother-tongue is **a man’s primary instrument of social intercourse and intercommunication**. ... so it might be suggested that it's ok, if he knows it “just enough” ... It would appear, however, that an instrument which is used almost continuously throughout one's waking hours for thought and communication, and throughout one's entire lifetime, should be a good instrument for the purpose, not a crude cheap one; and that it should be well understood and appreciated in order that it be carefully and intelligently used. The motor-car one uses for recreation one prefers to be of good design, clean, properly finished, quiet, smooth-running. One is not satisfied with just anything that will run. One's clothing we feel should be of good design and color, clean and not displeasing to others; not just anything, regardless of others, that will keep one warm. In the same way, one's language which is more intimately related to one's life than either of these things and which is a permanent possession, not one that is changed frequently, should also be of good design, *correct*, polished, *accurate and socially pleasing; not just anything that will crudely express a crude thought.* (p. 247)

### Cognitive status
{id=pptx-95349d5707bc-010} {notitle}

> **Pedocratic Oath** “parallel to the Hippocratic Oath in medicine. This would contain aspects of what is logically involved in teaching, including the **ethical seriousness** of the enterprise; it would set out **a form of contract with the consumer**, be it parent or student. In the university context for example, we ought to be able to devise some much more precise contractual guidelines which demarcate our **responsibilities as teachers, tutors and supervisors**, and our compatible expectations of students.” (Whitfield, 1976, p. 22)

“The Fourth R”: Reading, ‘Riting, ‘Rithmetic and …

… Religion, Computers, Art

## Interpersonal Functions
{id=pptx-95349d5707bc-011}

- Conceptual/Declarative
- Figurative
- Innovative
- Exegetic
- Prevaricative
- Performative

cf. Goatly

### Interpersonal Functions
{id=pptx-95349d5707bc-012} {notitle}

> “metaphors have all the advantage over explicit language as does theft over honest toil” (Petrie about Miller)

> *Quotation*: “Basically, the Conservative Government retained a very élitist notion of education, subscribing to the concept of **an educational ladder as opposed to the 'broad highway' of the Labour Party.**” *Comment*: “In some ways it is **easier to grasp the notion of the ladder than the 'broad highway'** – the nature of the highway and even its general direction lack clarity, and has only been examined in terms of curriculum content during the last years.” (Lawton)

### Interpersonal Functions
{id=pptx-95349d5707bc-013} {notitle}

> “… the vision of schools shared by many, if not most, stakeholders in education is strikingly reminiscent of the view Catholics and orthodox Christians have long had of their sacraments, that is, things which **bring about what they symbolize**.” (Paquette, 1991, p. 1)

We must give **consumers of education** a central part in **decision-making**. That means **freeing** schools and colleges to **deliver the standards** that parents and employers want. It means **encouraging the consumer to expect and demand that all educational bodies do the best job possible**. In a word, it means **choice**.

## Textual Functions
{id=pptx-95349d5707bc-014}

- Cohesive
  - Endophoric
    - Cataphoric (Space/world Building)
    - Anaphoric
  - Exophoric
- Coherent (cf. Ortony, Steen)
  - Local (Ad-Hoc, One shot)
  - Global (Systematic)

### Textual Functions
{id=pptx-95349d5707bc-015} {notitle}

*Quote:* Hilary Putnam has devised a bomb that threatens to devastate the realist philosophy we know and love. He explains that he has **learned to stop worrying about and love the bomb**. He welcomes the new order that it would bring. But we who still live in the target area do not agree. The bomb must be banned. (Lewis)

[4.500 words intervening]

*Comment:* Putnam’s bomb is **still ticking**. But all its **explosion threatens** is a theory of meaning not relevant from a human perspective. (Lakoff)

### Textual Functions
{id=pptx-95349d5707bc-016} {notitle}

A: “[it was] six years into my teaching career -- that my **allegiace to behavioral objectives** began **crumbling**.” (Trumbull, 1990, p. 171)

B: “They want to migrate a small number of schools each year to the new system of higher standards and accountability. While doing so, they are bringing in sort of **educational swat teams** to advise the newly recruited schools in all the systems. I am with a team of ten American women educators who are working in three girls’ schools to facilitate the reform.” (personal email from a colleague on a project)

## Applications and Limitations
{id=pptx-95349d5707bc-017}

- Interpretation of metaphorical expressions in corpora vs. individual texts
- Better analysis of texture (Hoey, 1991)
- Too time consuming to apply consistently to a whole corpus
- Too imprecise to be more than a guide
- Unclear as to coupling of functions
- Unclear on how the signaling of metaphor relates to the function (Goatly, 1997)

### Applications and Limitations
{id=pptx-95349d5707bc-018} {notitle}

It is our view that the status quo is not an **option**. Nor do we believe further *piecemeal* changes are desirable. Too many young people *leave education **lacking** basic* and personal **skills**; our vocational **provision** is too *fragmented*; the *burden* of *external* assessment on learners, teachers and lecturers is too great; and our ***system*** is not **providing** the stretch and challenge needed, particularly for ***high* attainers**. The results are a ***low* staying-on rate** post-16; **employers having to spend large sums of money to teach the *‘basics’***; HE *struggling* to differentiate between *top **performers***; and young people’s **motivation and engagement** with education *reducing* as they *move through the **system***.

Our report sets out a clear vision for a ***unified framework*** of 14-19 curriculum and qualifications. We want scholarship in subjects to be *given room* to flourish and we want ***high quality* vocational provision to be available** from age 14. These are different, but both, in their own terms, are vital to the future wellbeing of young people and hence our country. We want to *bring back* a passion for learning, and enable all learners to **achieve** as ***highly*** as possible and for their **achievements** to be recognised. We must ensure rigour and that all young people are ***equipped** with the knowledge, **skills** and attributes* needed for HE, employment and adult life. Despite its *weaknesses*, the current *system* has its *strengths*. Many *elements of the reforms* we propose can already be *found in schools and colleges* around the country and we want to *build on* their **good practice**. We also wish to retain the *best features* of existing qualifications and particularly the *well-established GCSE and A level route.* While they would not be **available** as separate qualifications, GCSEs and A levels and good vocational qualifications would become *‘components’, which form the building blocks of the new **system***.

![Two paragraphs of education reform text in which words are formatted in bold, italics, underline and small capitals.](assets/pages/page-18.png)

### Applications and Limitations
{id=pptx-95349d5707bc-019} {notitle}

- **Market model** (Bold)
  - option
  - skills
  - provision
  - providing
  - *high* attainers
  - *low* staying-on rate
  - employers having to spend large sums of money to teach the *‘basics’*
  - provision to be available
  - achieve … *highly*
  - good practice
  - available
  - managed
  - stakeholders
- **Physical structure** (*Italics*)
  - leave education
  - basic
  - fragmented
  - external
  - **system**
  - reducing
  - move through the **system**
  - **unified framework**
  - given room
  - high quality
  - bring back
  - **equipped** with the knowledge, skills and attributes
  - weaknesses
  - system
  - strengths
  - elements
  - found in schools and colleges
  - build on
  - best features
  - well-established
  - A level route
  - ‘components’, which form the building blocks of the new **system**
  - work
  - sound evidence
  - **piloting and modeling**
  - support throughout
  - through the period of change
- **Student=adults, Citizenship** (Underline)
  - young people
  - young people’s
  - and hence our country
  - young people
  - HE, employment and adult life
- **Morality, Growth** (Small Caps)
  - personal
  - vocational
  - *burden*
  - stretch and challenge
  - *struggling*
  - **motivation and engagement**
  - flourish
  - vital to the future wellbeing of young people
  - a passion for learning
  - enable all learners
  - rigour
  - evolution and not a revolution
  - vital
  - credibility of the current qualifications protected